By: Tom Knoff | February 25, 2024
The earliest centuries were a time of great vulnerability for Christianity. It was during those formative years the young church was facing external pressure from a hostile culture, as well as internal threats from heretical movements. Like a young child in peril, Christianity was in desperate need of protectors, hence there emerged the apologists and polemicists. While the apologists worked to convince an antagonistic government that Christians were undeserving of the oppression they were receiving, the polemicists who emerged to guard against doctrinal threats from within.
While students of theology and church history will recognize names such as Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and other apologetic heroes, there are others, who, though lesser known, also served a surprising, and invaluable role as guardians of the early church. Four lesser-known men who every Christian would do well to know are Quadratus, Aristo of Pella, Milatiades, and Apollinaris of Hieropolis. Though less is known of these figures, their work is nevertheless important, and therefore worthy of admiration.
Quadratus: The First of the Christian Apologists?
Quadratus wrote an apologetic work which was presented to the Roman emperor as a defense of Christianity. His work is no longer extant, but he is mentioned by the historian Eusebius in Ecclesiastical History.[1] Quadratus is described by Eusebius as being intelligent and biblically orthodox.[2]
As to the placement of this work in the timeline of Christian history, some believe that apart from the New Testament record, Quadrates’ Apology to emperor Hadrian (117-138) may be the earliest known Christian document.[3] This is known only by a fragment referenced by Eusebius.[4] There have been some scholars who suggest that Quadrates’ work Apology is actually the Epistle to Diognetus, but this is unsubstantiated. Assuming his work goes back to Hadrian, such a date would make it the earliest known example of Christian apologetic work.
As to the date and location in which Quadratus addressed the emperor, Eusebius records that he presented his work to Hadrian in Athens sometime about 124-125. Eusebius, however, inaccurately records that the emperor responded with a favorable verdict.
As to the identity of Quadratus, there has been some confusion. Eusebius references a letter by Dionysius of Corinth which notes that Quadratus was made bishop of Athens following the martyrdom of Publius.[5] This however is not accurate, for the Quadratus who presented his Apology to Hadrian is not to be confused with the bishop of Athens with the same name. That Quadratus is believed to have lived during the time of the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
Quadratus is considered by many to be the first of the Christian apologists. Except for a fragment in Eusebius’s Ecclesiastical History 4.3, the works of Quadratus are lost. Though several attempts have been made throughout history to identify his work or portions of it in later writings, such efforts have been insufficient.[6]
Aristo of Pella: Author of the First Anti-Jewish Polemic in Christian Literature
One of the earliest records of a Christian apologist defending Christianity against attacks from Judaism is a Discussion between Jason and Papiscus Concerning Christ by Aristo of Pella. It was likely composed approximately 140, which would make it the first record of an anti-Jewish polemic in Christian literature. This apologetic was primarily directed toward the Jews. In it, Jason, a Jewish Christian uses the allegorical method of interpretation to convince Papiscus the Jew that Jesus was the Messiah which the Old Testament had prophesied.
It’s inclusion of allegorical exegetical hermeneutic (championed by the Alexandrian School) serves possible internal evidence that Papiscus was from Alexandria, Egypt. Origen, in Against Celsus, notes that this work, which is no longer extant, was written for a broad range of people.[7] As Origen records, Aristo’s treatise lays out a dispute between a Jew (Papiscus of Alexandria, Egypt), and Jason (a Jewish-Christian).[8] The tract describes the story of how Jason used the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) to argue that the prophecies regarding the Messiah were fulfilled in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. The Christian argues so convincingly that Papiscus concedes that Jesus is indeed the Messiah and acknowledges Him as God’s Son. Upon doing so, he requests to be baptized.[9]
Aristo is referenced by various figures from early church history. Eusebius cites him as his source for Hadrian’s decree forbidding Jews to return to Jerusalem following Bar Cochba’s revolt.[10] Jerome refers to Aristo’s work in his Commentary to Galatians.[11] Aristo’s name is mentioned by John of Scythopolis where John links him with the work.[12]
Origen conveys a measure of esteem for Aristo’s work.[13] Interestingly, Origen, records Celsus as one who scorns and demeans Aristo’s work, presumably how Papiscus the Jew is convinced to become a Christian by the arguments of Jason, the Christian. In fact, Origen levels a rebuke to Celsus for his unfair criticism of Aristo’s work, and subsequently affirms respect of the work of the early apologist.
Miltiades: Student of Justin Martyr
Miltiades was born in Asia Minor. He was a rhetorician who lived during the time of the Syrian theologian Tatian. Many commentators believe Miltiades was likely a student of Justin Martyr, having been mentored in theology and apologetics.
The writings of Miltiades are no longer extant. Though his apologetic works, along with those of Apollinaris of Hierapolis, Melito of Sardis and other unknown authors from his time have been lost,[14] the historian Eusebius records that Miltiades composed an Apology for Christian Philosophy.[15] This apology was written to address earthly or “temporal” rulers of this world, such as Marcus Aurelius and his co-regent Lucius Verus.[16]
There are several other works attributed to Miltiades. These works include apologetic his two-volume work Against the Greeks, as well as his two-volume work Against the Jews. He also wrote a treatise which addressed the heretical teachings of the Montanists. That work primarily focused on the issue of question That a Prophet Should not Speak in Ecstasy. In it, he argued that the so-called authoritative teachers or prophets of the Montanist movement were not true prophets at all.[17] Miltiades also composed another anti-heretical work which specifically directed at Valentinian Gnosticism.
Miltiades and his works are mentioned by various figures from early church history. In addition to Eusebius’s record, Miltiades’s works were also referenced by Tertullian in Against the Valentinians. Additionally, Hippolytus also refers to Miltiades, noting that he defended Christianity against the external attacks of the pagans as well as the internal assaults Christian beliefs via heretical teachings within the church.
In addition to Eusebius’s record that Miltiades produced two books against the Greeks, as well as his two-volume work against the Jews,[18] he also is credited with producing an apology written to Emperor Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. In it, he defended the Christian faith, the benefit of Christians to Roman society, as well as an overall philosophy for Christian living.[19]
Apollinaris of Hierapolis: Defender against Marcus Aurelius and Influencer of Tertullian
Apollinaris’s full name was Claudius Apollinaris. He served as the Bishop of Hierapolis during the reign of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. This was the same city which the Greek apostolic father Papias (60 – 163), had previously served as Bishop. His work is reported by Eusebius,[20] wherein the historian records that Apollinaris’s writings were widely known, and, at the time of Eusebius, they were still preserved.
The known works of Apollinaris as noted by Eusebius include a treatise to emperor Marcus Aurelius, five books Against the Greeks, two books On the Truth, and two books Against the Jews. He also wrote to counter the heretical teachings of the Montanists or Phrygians which had begun to emerge and propagate their teachings. All of the works referenced by Eusebius are no longer extant.
In addition to the works referenced by Eusebius, there was another work attributed to Apollinaris titled On Easter. This work by Apollinaris titled On Easter, was lost, but is known to historians because it was referenced by the author of the seventh-century Greek Christian chronicle of the world called Chronicle of Easter. The author of that work cites two verses, presumably from Apollinaris, wherein he argues against a certain dating of Easter.[21]
In addition to the variety of works he produced, Apollinaris also influenced Tertullian’s anti-Gnostic apologetic work Against Valentinianism. Tertullian, in addition to relying on Irenaeus’s work Against Heresies, also drew from the works of Justin Martyr, Proculus, and Miltiades.[22]
As to the quality of the doctrinal content, Eusebius describes the works of Apollinaris as being biblically orthodox, and in line with the apostolic tradition.[23] In addition to the record of Eusebius, his alignment with the apostolic doctrines was also attested to by Serapion, the bishop of Antioch. This was noted in a letter which Serapion wrote to Caricus and Pontius, wherein he referred to Apollinaris’s works as proof that the church was unified in its opposition to the Montanist heresy.[24]
The writings of Apollinaris are no longer extant, yet they, along with those of the other apologists of his time such as Melito of Sardis and Miltiades, reveal a degree of cohesion with one another. In other words, the work of those early apologists suggests that they as a group seemed to stand together in opposition to the accusations being made by educated pagans who were leading to persecutions both locally and across the empire. While the works of that time are not fleshed out in depth doctrinally, they nevertheless demonstrate a unified effort amongst apologists to stand courageously with sincerity of heart.
Concluding Thoughts
The aim of this article has been to highlight four lesser-known apologists whom God raised up during the patristic period as protectors of the fledging church. Though fewer are familiar with the names Quadratus, Aristo of Pella, Milatiades, and Apollinaris of Hierapolis, their work and efforts live on through the ages, having served to defend early Christianity during its most vulnerable time.
About the Author
Tom Knoff, Ph.D. Candidate: Contributor
Tom Knoff serves as a Teaching Pastor at Inspiration Church in Mesquite, Texas. He is a Ph.D. Candidate in the Theology and Apologetics program at Liberty University. Tom and his wife Kim live in Texas and have four grown children.
Notes
[1] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 4.3.1-2.
[2] Angelo Di Berardin, ed. Encyclopedia of the Early Church, vol. 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 727.
[3] Di Berardin, ed. Encyclopedia of the Early Church, vol 1, 60.
[4] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 5.3.
[5] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 4.23.
[6] Paul Meagher and Thomas O’Brien, eds. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religion, vol. O-Z (Washington D.C.: Corpus Publications, 1979), 2946.
[7] Johannes Quasten, Patrology, vol. 2 (Thomas More Press, 1993), 195-196.
[8] Origen, Against Celsus 5.52.
[9] Quasten, Patrology, vol. 2, 195.
[10] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 6.3.
[11] Jerome, Commentary to Galatians 2.3.12.
[12] Meager, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religion, vol. A-E, 257.
[13] Origen, Against Celsus 5.52.
[14] Di Berardin, Encyclopedia of the Early Church, vol. 1, 60.
[15] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 5.17.5.
[16] Quasten, Patrology, vol. 2, 228.
[17] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 5.17.1.
[18] Di Berardin, Encyclopedia of the Early Church, vol. 1, 560.
[19] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 5.17.5.
[20] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 4.27.
[21] Quasten, Patrology, vol. 2, 228.
[22] Quasten, Patrology, vol. 2, 277.
[23] Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 4.27.
[24] Di Berardin, Encyclopedia of the Early Church, vol. 1, 58.
